The development of North America in the mirror of European power struggles: From early colonialism to the European Great War

Less than a hundred years ago, settlers from various European countries had settled in North America. The Spaniards, French, Dutch and Englishmen built their first colonies along the southern Atlantic coast. These colonists brought with them different traditions, languages and interests. The diversity of European influences has had a lasting impact on the regionlaid the foundation for later political and cultural developments on the continent.

Conflicts and competition inland

With the further advance of the settlers inland North America, there was inevitably a friction between the various groups. Everyone wanted to expand their sphere of influence and secure as many resources as possible. The question of who would ultimately assert themselves in these disputes was long open. After the end of the Thirty Years’ War, the supremacy wasSpain’s weakened, and Holland initially seemed to emerge victorious, as it had a strong naval power and controlled the strategically important Hudson Valley. France, on the other hand, relied on controlling the St. Lorenz electricity and thus created favorable access to the North American inland.

The English colonies in comparison

The English colonies were successful in different ways. Especially those settlers who lived on fertile soil and in a mild climate enjoyed better living conditions and chances of survival than their relatives in New England. The latter had to assert themselves on barren land and were under constant pressure from neighboring Dutch and French colonies. The competition for land andResources were great and led to constant tensions.

turning point: The takeover of Neu-Amsterdam

A crucial turning point came in 1664 when the Duke of York took control of New Amsterdam from the Dutch and renamed the city to New York. This shifted the power structure in favor of England, which now positioned itself purposefully as a rival in maritime trade. As early as 1651, the English Parliament had the right to maritime supremacy with the navigation fileunderpinned. After several wars, the Dutch ultimately had to give up their naval dominance to England.

French expansion and military bases

While England concentrated on expanding its colonies, the French continued their expansion. In 1673 Louis Joliet reached the Mississippi via the Wisconsin River. A few years later, Rene-Robert La Salle followed the St. Lorenz River to the Great Lakes and finally reached the Mississippi Basin, where he founded the colony of St. Louisiana and with the port of La Nouvelle Orleansas well as the Fort St. Louis. French military bases formed a protective wall behind the English colonies, which initially gave them strategic advantages.

Changes in international power

The influence of France in North America was reflected in place names like Detroit, Saint Paul, Saint Louis and New Orleans. But at sea, France had to be subject to a united Dutch-English fleet in 1692 in the Battle of La Hogue. This was how Holland and England established themselves as serious competitors of the Spanish naval power. The European conflicts wereColonies continued to be fought, and the conflicts in the New World in turn influenced the power relations in Europe.

The Seven Years’ War and its consequences

A particularly striking example of the interdependence of European and North American conflicts is the Seven Years’ War. At first glance, this war, often associated with Frederick II of Prussia’s policy of conquest, had little to do with the North American Indian War. On closer inspection, however, parallels, for example in relation to the challenges,Colonists in barren regions had to cope with – a circumstance that applied to the residents of Brandenburg and Pomerania as well as to the New Englanders. Both groups developed great endurance and innovative strength, for example in the development of sandy soils or the introduction of social security systems.

Prussian influences and the rise of the New Englanders

In the 19th century, the descendants of the Prussian emigrants rose to a significant force in North America. According to historian Arnold Toynbee, Prussia provided decisive impetus for the development of modern states: such as the use of artificial fertilizers, the introduction of compulsory schooling and the creation of social security systems. The Newlanders, on the other hand, were not onlydominant power on the North American continent, but also played a key role in world events of the 20th century. After the Second World War, they took over the supremacy that Prussia had previously held.

Diplomatic Strategies and Global Impact

The British triumph in North America would hardly have been possible without the support of Prussia – an aspect that Toynbee overlooked in his world historiography. In 1753, England was under great pressure in North America: the French and their Indian allies had built fortresses in the Ohio Valley. England drafted a plan to expel the French, but first militaryThreats failed and resulted in bloody defeats. At the same time, the Seven Years’ War, which is considered the first global conflict, began in Europe and brought fights to Asia and Africa.

The complex alliance system of Europe

England used his sea power to become militarily active in North America, but without strong land troops, a victory was hardly possible. Therefore, England moved its military actions to the Mediterranean and India and searched for European allies to bind the French army on the continent. Potential allies were Austria, Russia and Prussia.The negotiations were difficult, as each state pursued its own interests and demanded different incentives.

The role of Frederick II and the consequences for Europe

Frederick II of Prussia, who had previously conquered Silesia with French support, was aware of the explosive situation. He refused to occupy Hanover on behalf of the French, as this would have led to an alliance between England, Austria and Russia against Prussia. England sought alternatives and in 1755 concluded an agreement with Russia that the posting of Russiantroops to north-west Germany and financial subsidies provided. The Prussian court was concerned about the permanent presence of Russian soldiers in the region.

Prussian isolation and Russia’s interests

In the 18th century, Russia followed with great attention the development of Prussia, which became increasingly influenced under Frederick II. Russia considered the emerging Prussia a serious obstacle in its own territorial ambitions in Poland and Sweden. A military conflict with Prussia would have given Russia a welcome opportunity toTo permanently weaken rivals in the heart of Europe and to assert their own interests. This threat situation had also been clearly recognized in Berlin; In particular, Friedrich II did not want to risk the preciously conquered Silesia lightly.

The Westminster Convention and its consequences

For this reason, Frederick II decided on January 16, 1756 to take a political move and concluded the so-called Westminster Convention with England. The agreement obligated both parties to maintain peace in Germany and ensured that no foreign powers were allowed to march through German territory. Thus, Hanover was the personal possession of EnglishKönigs had become inaccessible to both Russian and French troops. But Friedrich’s calculation did not work: He overestimated Russia’s dependence on England and at the same time underestimated the outrage that would cause his approach to England at the French court.

The emergence of an enemy grand coalition

Austria skilfully exploited the resulting upset. The aim was to forge a broad coalition of Austria, Russia and France against Prussia. On April 5, 1756, Zarin Elisabeth finally agreed to this plan. Together, the three powers wanted to attack Prussia and declared that they would only accept a ceasefire after the complete reconquest of Silesia.In return, Russia claimed Kurland and Semgallen, while Poland was to be compensated with East Prussia – a complicated calculation that required a lot of diplomatic skills. In Paris, too, Austrian diplomats succeeded in presenting the Prussian-English agreement as a direct threat to French interests.

The game of interests: France, England and the Continental Front

England could only be threatened as a land power in the Electorate of Hanover, but access was blocked by the Westminster Convention. At sea, England remained unassailable for the opponents. France was initially hesitant because a shattered Prussian was not in his interest alongside an overpowering Austria. Austria finally evacuated France in return for his supportthe Austrian Netherlands as soon as Silesia and Glatz were regained. At the same time, Prussia should be reduced to the status of an electorate.

New alliances and the complete isolation of Prussia

Other states also sensed the chance of gains in territory: Sweden and Saxony joined the coalition. Pomerania should fall to Sweden, Magdeburg to Sachsen, Kleve-Mark to the Electoral Palatinate and East Prussia to Poland. Frederick II was now confronted with exactly the situation he had absolutely wanted to avoid – the complete isolation of Prussia. He had no other option thanto renew the alliance with England. Although no military aid was to be expected, a generous subsidia contract regulated annual payments to Prussia. The colonial war, which was kindled in North America, threatened to expand into a conflagration across Europe.

The complexity of conflicts: Europe, colonies and trade interests

In Europe, the decisive contrasts between Austria and Prussia were fought out, which had their origin in the Prussian policy of conquest of the War of the Austrian Succession. Even more important, however, were the rivalries between France and England over maritime supremacy and control of the Indian colonies. In North America, theprotestant Anglo-Saxon settlers also opposed the establishment of a Roman Catholic rule. At the same time, immense economic interests were at stake: the colonial markets and sources of raw materials had a value that exceeded that of Europe by many times.

The Global War and the Turning Point of Fate

After the Prussian army tied up French troops in Europe and William Pitt took over the leadership of English warfare from 1757, Britain succeeded in conquering the important fortress of Louisbourg by 1758 and the whole of Canada by 1760. In India, the last significant French base Pondichery fell in October 1760. In doing so, England had achieved its most important war goals.However, unlike Prime Minister Pitt, the King and bourgeoisie of England wanted to end the war and stopped payments to Prussia in December 1761. Prussia was militarily exhausted and was on the verge of defeat.

The sudden turnaround and the end of the Seven Years’ War

In 1758, Russian troops had devastated the Neumark, destroyed Küstrin and conquered the Kolberg fortress. Large parts of Silesia, Pomerania and parts of Saxony had to be abandoned. But the political situation changed abruptly with the death of Tsarina Elisabeth. Her successor Peter III was an admirer of Frederick II and immediately ceased all fighting. May 5, 1762he made peace and returned all the conquered territories. In the last battle at Burkersdorf, Friedrich also defeated the Austrians, who then had to retreat – Prussia’s victory was complete.

The Peace of Paris and the Reorganization of the World

The Paris Peace Treaty of 1763 marked an unprecedented territorial upheaval: Canada, Florida, the entire eastern Mississippi Valley and large parts of the West Indies fell to England. France was allowed to retain its Indian colonies by 1749; Spain regained Cuba and Havana. Prime Minister Lord Bute showed little gratitude towards Prussiaand even allowed France to claim possession of Kleve and funds – a meager recognition of Prussia’s crucial role in England’s rise to world power.

New Challenges in North America

With the proclamation of October 7, 1763, the English Crown generously declared the former French area of influence east of the Appalachians and the Ohio watershed to be an “Indian reserve”. This was a major setback for the American settlers, as they were denied access to new land – a break with the dream of the unlimited West. The tensions between colonistsand motherland grew until, on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted, which Thomas Jefferson had authoritatively drafted. The preamble demanded freedom and equality for all – but the slaves still had to wait a hundred years for their rights.

The French Revolution and Napoleon’s Rise

The American Revolution inspired the French Revolution, which claimed numerous victims under the motto “Equality, Freedom, Fraternity”. Napoleon Bonaparte, initially an artillery officer, became France’s beacon of hope. After the defeat of the French fleet at Abukir in 1798 and losing battles in Egypt, Napoleon left the country to create new armies in Francefor the conquest of Europe.

The Louisiana Purchase and the End of French Power in North America

Due to financial shortages, Napoleon sold the vast Louisiana area to President Jefferson for $15 million on April 30, 1803. This doubled the territory of the USA, while the French presence in North America finally disappeared. Canada was already British; the French flag was overtaken in the New World.

Napoleon and the End of Old Europe

Napoleon now turned to Europe: in 1805 he defeated Prussian-Russian troops near Jena and Auerstedt, forced the German princes to subjugate and induced the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. The Habsburgs now called themselves Emperors of Austria. Bavaria was raised to the kingdom. In the years that followed, Portugal, Spain and Northern Germany came under FrenchControl, while resistance to foreign rule grew.

Resistance and collapse of the Napoleonic order

Resistance was formed from Tyrol to northern Germany. The Germans first felt like a common people and longed for freedom. Napoleon, who was always waging new wars, overestimated his power: in 1812 he moved to Russia with a huge army, but the loss-making retreat destroyed his army. The peoples of Europe drew new hope; Napoleon had to go to Parisreturn and admitted in his bulletin that his army was destroyed. Nevertheless, he set up a new force and, above all, forced the youth of Europe to serve his claims to power.

General York’s neutrality and the birth of resistance to Napoleon

In the winter of 1812, when Napoleon’s army was weakened after their catastrophic Russian campaign, General Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg took a momentous step. Without consulting his King Friedrich Wilhelm III, on December 30, Yorck arbitrarily signed the Tauroggen Convention, a neutrality treaty with the Russian General Diebitsch. subsequently occupiedYorck with Prussian troops the strategically important areas between Memel, Tilsit and the Curonian Lagoon. King Friedrich Wilhelm III initially reacted strictly and removed Yorck from his command – but this act of disobedience proved to be an initial spark for a broad popular movement against Napoleon’s foreign rule. After much hesitation, the Prussian king also closed thegrowing urge to liberate and headed the national survey.

The final traits of Napoleon and the end of his reign

Despite heavy losses and the spreading movement in Germany, Napoleon, unbroken in his will to power, put his newly established army again in the direction of the east. Emperor Francis of Austria, concerned about the future of Europe, sent the experienced diplomat Metternich to start peace negotiations with Napoleon. But after just a few hoursit turned out that Napoleon was not willing to let go of his expansion course. When Metternich asked him what he would do if this young army was destroyed too, Napoleon responded with an outburst: “You’re not a soldier and don’t know what’s going on in the heart of a soldier! I grew up in the field and I’m whistling on the life of a million people.” these wordsrevealed Napoleon’s uncompromising attitude and disdain for human life.

The Battle of the Nations in Leipzig and the Breaking of the Napoleonic Empire

In 1813 the opposing forces gathered. Napoleon’s troops, reinforced by Bavarian associations, met a coalition of Prussia, Russia, England, Austria and Sweden near Leipzig. The so-called Battle of the Nations near Leipzig, which raged for several days, became the biggest battle of European history to date. On the first day Napoleon’s troops stood, butSecond day, the Bavarian soldiers changed fronts. The sheet turned: Napoleon suffered a decisive defeat, his great empire began to crumble. Meanwhile, Austrian troops advanced to northern Italy, English troops landed on the Iberian Peninsula and advanced into French territory via the Pyrenees. since Napoleon any peace negotiationsrejected, Allied armies invaded Paris on March 31, 1814. Napoleon was forced to abdicate and banished into exile to the island of Elba – with that the era of the French Revolution came to an end.

Restoration of the monarchy and the Congress of Vienna

After Napoleon’s abdication, Louis XVIII, the brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended the French throne. He reigned as magnificently as his predecessors and remained unpopular like this. At the Congress of Vienna, convened in 1814, the great European powers tried to reverse the circumstances raised by the revolution and Napoleon and the political balanceas before 1789 to be restored. Under the guiding principle of “solidarity”, England, Russia, Austria, Prussia and France wanted to jointly ensure stability, order and peace in Europe. However, as early as January 1815, England, France and Austria made a secret alliance against Russia and Prussia – an early sign of the tensions between the sea power of Great Britainand continental European power Russia. This rivalry was to shape the entire 19th century and spread to Asia, where it found its expression in various conflicts.

Napoleon’s Return, Waterloo and the final end of the Napoleonic era

In the spring of 1815, Napoleon surprisingly returned from his exile to Elba and again seized power in France. However, this “rule of the hundred days” ended in June of the same year with the crushing defeat in the Battle of Waterloo against an alliance of British, Prussian and Dutch troops. Napoleon was then called “enemy of Europe” and”Destroyer of World Peace” banished to the remote Atlantic island of Sankt Helena. Despite his years of wars that had held Europe in suspense for almost a quarter of a century, France was treated comparatively mildly and was largely allowed to retain its 1790 territorial boundaries. France remained an important player in the European equilibrium.

The Holy Alliance and the Search for Stability

Even before the final peace was concluded, Russia, Austria and Prussia closed the so-called “Holy Alliance” on September 26, 1815. The rulers of these states solemnly pledged to align their policies with Christian ideals such as justice, charity and peace. Great Britain and the Pope refused to participate. In truth, the Alliance served not leastsecuring monarchical domination and the suppression of revolutionary movements. The monarchs particularly emphasized the peaceful settlement of international conflicts. England, on the other hand, remained distant and primarily pursued their own interests and maintaining the balance of power. The Regular Congresses of the Holy Alliance can be considered early forerunners of modernsecurity organizations are considered.

The collapse of the Alliance and the national movements in the Balkans

However, where British interests were affected, the end of the Alliance quickly became apparent: the wars of liberation of the Serbs and Greeks against the Ottoman foreign rule revealed the breaking points in the European alliance system. Especially the massacre on the Greek island of Chios in April 1822, in which the Ottoman troops cruelly murdered tens of thousands of inhabitants and the survivorsWhen slaves sold, worldwide horror triggered and awakened the so-called Philhellenism. The British public was shattered, but Great Britain’s geopolitical interest demanded the preservation of the Ottoman Empire as a counterweight to Russia’s expansion. Despite growing bourgeois commitment in favor of the Greeks, the British government was reluctant toPressure from the own population led to a careful support of the Greek struggle for freedom.

Greece’s independence and the power shifts in the east and south-east of Europe

Finally, the Sultan felt compelled to give in by the pressure of Russia. In the London Protocol of 1830, the establishment of an independent, albeit small, Greek kingdom was decided to be governed by the Bavarian Prince Otto – a decision of the great European powers. Despite the victory over the Ottomans, Great Britain remained careful toto obtain Ottoman Empire as a bulwark against Russia. France pursued its own strategic goals and wanted to secure the status quo. Greece’s independence and the autonomy of Serbia further weakened the Ottoman Empire and sparked new ethnic conflicts in the Balkans, which fueled the power struggle between Vienna and Saint Petersburg. These tensions remained untilOutbreak of the First World War in 1914 unresolved.

Revolutions, Biedermeier and cultural blossoms in Germany

While national movements flared up in the Balkans, in July 1830 a new revolution came about in Paris: workers, students and citizens rose against the authoritarian rule of King Charles X and his repressive censorship measures. The monarch had to flee to England in exile. The new “Bürgerkönig” Louis Philippe ruled from then on. The consequences of the July Revolution were also inBelgium, Poland and Italy noticeable. In the German Confederation, a loose association of numerous princely, duke and kingdoms, the broad population has largely left out politically since the Congress of Vienna. Nevertheless, art and culture experienced an incomparable blossom: composers such as Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert, poets like Schiller and Goethe and philosophers such as Hegel,Schelling and Schopenhauer shaped this era. These quiet years later went down in history as “Biedermeier”.

Economic boom, railway and new revolutions

Economic progress progressed. In 1834, on the initiative of Prussia, 18 of 39 German states united to form the “German Customs Association”, which laid the foundation for the later German nation state. The opening of the Leipzig-Dresden railway line in 1839 marked the beginning of a new era of mobility. In France, crop failures and the preference forWealthy under Louis Philippe in 1848 on the so-called “February Revolution”. The king had to abdicate and flee into exile. A provisional government of the Second Republic was established under the influence of the romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine. But the revolutionary energy continued: In May 1848, unrest broke out again in Paris, this time driven by radical socialists,expropriations and socialization. The government struck the revolt with extreme harshness; About 10,000 people lost their lives.

Louis Napoleon, coup d’état and the founding of the Second Empire

Louis Napoleon, nephew of the famous Napoleon I, had previously made two failed attempts at coup. Now he took advantage of the moment: With promises of common property for workers, security for the bourgeoisie and a renewal in the Napoleonic spirit for the peasants, he won the presidential elections with a large majority in November 1848. As President Louis put NapoleonComprehensive modernization by: new railway lines, roads and residential buildings were built, wide boulevards were built. A year before the end of his term of office, he carried out a successful coup, extended his reign and had himself confirmed to ten years in January 1852. In the same year he was crowned Emperor Napoleon III – a decision made by 97%the voter in the plebiscites was confirmed. Napoleon III sought to make France a world power again and led the country into numerous European and overseas adventures.

Crimean War, Italian Unification and French Interventions

When Russia occupied the principalities of Moldova and Wallachia in 1853, Napoleon III took advantage of this opportunity to win Britain for a joint action against the Tsar. Sardinia Piedmont under the clever Prime Minister Camillo Cavour joined in hope of French unification in the Italian settlement. The Crimean War began in 1854 with bitter battlesSevastopol and caused about 100,000 deaths. After a year, Sevastopol fell, and Russia had to cede the Danube Delta in the Treaty of Paris in 1856. Subsequently, Napoleon III supported Cavour’s efforts to establish an Italian kingdom: in the war against Austria in 1859, the Habsburgs withdrew from Lombardy after losing battles.

France’s Mexico Adventure and the Struggle for Overseas Influence

Inspired by success, Napoleon III turned to new goals. During the American Civil War, he had Benito Juárez, the President of Mexico, expelled from the country by joint Anglo-French-Spanish troops. However, after their demands were met, England and Spain withdrew, while France tried to establish a monarchy dependent on Paris in Mexico.The timing seemed favorable, as the US was bound by its civil war. Napoleon III persuaded Maximilian, the brother of Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria, to take over the Mexican imperial office. But this step provoked massive resistance in North America. While Napoleon established a Catholic monarchy in Mexico, he also occupied the Mekong Delta in Vietnam.

Failure in Mexico and the retreat of France

After the end of the American Civil War, the United States supported Benito Juárez. Napoleon III had to withdraw his troops from Mexico. Maximilian was captured and executed – the French adventure failed miserably. France thus lost its influence in Central America, while the US consolidated its position in the Western Hemisphere andas a protective force against European interventions.